第四节 我如何写日记
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第四节 我如何写日记
我先从每天抄写的单词及例句中,找一个我认为不错的句子,例如:
My patience is getting thin!
(我的耐心渐渐没了!)
然后我就自己编一个关于在餐厅用餐的故事,用学到的语法编写了下面一则日记:
This evening, I decided to eat out for a change. There is a new restaurant in my neighborhood, so I went there to find some good food to taste. However, the waiter's service was too slow. Half an hour passed, and the food hadn't come yet. My patience was getting thin. Right before I decided to leave, the food finally came. It was a bowl of beef noodles. Fortunately, the food was tasty, much to my satisfaction. I know (that) someday I'll visit that restaurant again.
(今晚我决定到外面吃饭,来一点改变。我家附近有一家新开的馆子,因此我便到那里去找些好吃的东西尝尝看。不过服务员太慢了。半个小时都过去了,食物却还没送上来。我快没耐心了。我正决定要离开时,食物终于送过来了。那是一碗牛肉面。好在那碗面很好吃,倒是令我觉得还挺满意的。我知道将来我还会再去光顾那家餐厅。)
大家应该注意到了,在这篇虚构的日记中,我巧妙地用了笔记本里的句子“My patience was getting thin”,也用了连词so、and、before。在日记的最后一句我用了that引导的名词性从句做完全及物动词know的宾语。
这种写日记的方式虽然并不是纪实式的写作,却让我可以把平日里记在笔记本里的单词、词组、习语、好句子随时在日记中运用出来,还可以顺便复习我在语法中学到的五大基本句型的用法。久而久之,这种现学现用的写作习惯奠定了我后来正式写作文、中译英及英译中的基础。不过我知道在从事正式写作及翻译工作之前,我一定要学会语法中的时态及非限定动词(分词、不定式短语、动名词)的各种用法,使句子有所变化。从《柯旗化英文语法》一书中,我还学到了有关非限定动词的用法:
1.第一类非限定动词:现在分词/过去分词
两句在一起需有连词连接:
John has a pleasant personality, so he has quite a few friends.
(约翰有开朗的个性,因此他有许多朋友。)
但我可删除连词so,形成下面没有连词连接的错误句子:
John has a pleasant personality, he has quite a few friends.(×)
此时,我就可把表原因的第一句John has a pleasant personality改成分词短语,原则如下:
(a)将与第二句he相同的主语John删除
(b)之后的动词has变成现在分词having,再把第二句的主语he改成John,即告完成:
Having a pleasant personality, John has quite a few friends.
改正后的句子中,句首的Having a pleasant personality是分词词组,视为形容词,修饰主句中的主语John。
同理:
I was tired after all the work, so I went to bed early last night.
(我做完所有的工作便累了,因此昨晚我就提早入睡了。)
→I was tired after all the work, I went to bed early last night.(×,两句无连词连接)
此时,我就将第一句I was tired after all the work改成分词短语,原则如下:
(a)将相同的主语I删除
(b)之后的be动词was变成现在分词being,being可省略或不省略。即:
Being tired after all the work, I went to bed early last night.
=Tired after all the work, I went to bed early last night.
以上化简成分词短语的句子结构都有一个特点,即第一句与第二句的主语必须相同,才能将第一句变化成分词短语。不过有几点我们要注意:
(1)第一句若有助动词do、does或did,如下例:
I didn't know what to do, I asked Paul for help.(×,两句无连词连接)
此时,一样先删除相同主语I,再删除助动词did,保留否定副词not,并将动词know变成现在分词。即:
Not knowing what to do, I asked Paul for help.
(我不知道该怎么做,便请求保罗协助。)
(2)第一句如果有完成时助动词have、has或had,如下例:
I have finished all the work, I feel relieved.(×,两句无连词连接)
此时一样先删除相同主语I,再将完成时助动词have改成现在分词having:
Having finished all the work, I feel relieved.
(做完所有的工作后,我觉得松了一口气。)
(3)第一句如果有否定完成时助动词have not、has not或had not,如下例:
John had not finished his report, he felt nervous.(×,两句无连词连接)
此时一样先删除相同主语John,再将完成时助动词had改成现在分词having,即:
Having not finished his report, John felt nervous.(×)
然后将not置于Having前,即:
Not having finished his report, John felt nervous.(○)
(约翰没写完报告,因此感到很紧张。)
(4)第一句如果有be动词与否定副词not并用,如下例:
Mary is not pretty, she feels a bit self-conscious.(×,两句无连词连接)
此时一样先删除主语Mary,再将is改成现在分词being,即:
Being not pretty, Mary feels a bit self-conscious.(×)
然后将not放在Being之前,即:
Not being pretty, Mary feels a bit self-conscious.(○)
=Not pretty, Mary feels a bit self-conscious.
(玛丽不漂亮,因此有点自卑感。)
(5)第一句如果有助动词can、cannot、could、couldn't,如下例:
Jane couldn't solve the problem, she felt frustrated.(×,两句无连词连接)
此时应将couldn't改成有动词was的词组was unable to,形成下列仍然没有连词连接的错误句子:
Jane was unable to solve the problem, she felt frustrated.(×)
一样先删除相同主语Jane,之后的动词was改成being,即:
Being unable to solve the problem, Jane felt frustrated.(○)
=Unable to solve the problem, Jane felt frustrated.
=Not (being) able to solve the problem, Jane felt frustrated.
(无法解决问题,简很有挫折感。)
(6)如果第一句主语与第二句主语不同时,如何将第一句改成分词短语?步骤如下:
(a)将不同的主语保留
(b)后面的动词变成现在分词,如果是be动词或had been,就分别变成现在分词being或having been后,再省略掉,如下例:
My report was not finished, I asked John for help.(×)
→My report not (being) finished, I asked John for help.(○)
My report had not been finished, I asked John for help.(×)
My report having not been finished, I asked John for help.(×)
→My report not having been finished, I asked John for help.(○)
(我的报告没写完,便请约翰帮忙。)
以上讲的是两句无连词连接时,第一个句子需变成分词词组的句子结构。接着我在继续看语法书时,学到了第二种分词词组的句子结构:单句中如果有两个动词,通常应有连词连接,如下例:
Sue sings well and dances (连接词and)beautifully.
(苏歌唱得很好,舞也跳得很美。)
但如果这两个动词所代表的动作同时发生时,我们往往就不用连词连接,而是将第二个动词变成现在分词;如果第二个动词是be动词,那么变成现在分词being后可省略,如下例:
Peter sat by the window and smoked.(可)
(彼得坐在窗边开始抽烟。)→(彼得先坐下,再抽烟。)
Peter sat by the window smoking.(佳)
(彼得坐在窗边抽烟。)→(彼得边坐着边抽烟。)
David stood there and was shocked and motionless.(可)
(戴维站在那里,开始感到震惊并一动也不动。)
→(戴维先站着,再感到震惊,并一动也不动。)
David stood there (being) shocked and motionless.(佳)
(戴维站在那里,一副吃惊动弹不得的样子。)
→(戴维边站在那里,震惊又动弹不得。)
John studies day and night, and hopes to get somewhere someday.(可)
(约翰日夜苦读,并希望有朝一日成大器。)
→(约翰先用功读书,再希望成大器。)
John studies day and night, hoping to get somewhere someday.(佳)
(约翰日夜苦读,希望有朝一日成大器。)
→(约翰边苦读,边希望能成大器。)
至此,我已把我学到的分词句构的最重要的用法介绍给各位读者了,相信大家对分词句构已有了基本的认识。在结束分词部分之前,我要讲一下分词做形容词的用法。
若干分词可做形容词用,原则如下:
●现在分词:译成“令人……的”“正在……的”或“即将……的”
●过去分词:翻译成“感到……的”或“已经……的”
请参考下例:
The baby is tiring. →令人疲惫的
(这个宝宝很磨人。)
The baby is tired. →感到累的
(这个宝宝累了。)
The book is interesting. →令人感兴趣的
(这本书很有趣。)
I'm interested in that job. →感兴趣的
(我对那份工作有兴趣。)
The old man is dying.
(这位老先生即将死亡。)
Never jump off a moving train. →正在行驶的
(千万别从正在行驶的火车上跳下来。)
Peter is finished with his work. →已经做完的
(彼得已做完他的工作。)
2.第二类非限定动词:to引导的不定式短语
(1)我在本章前面曾提到不定式短语有名词的特性,可在句中当主语,表示一种尚未实现且不一定何时才能实现的愿望,如下例:
To be a doctor(主语) is my dream.
=My dream is to be a doctor(主语补语).
= It (形式主语) is my dream to be a doctor(真主语).
(我的梦想就是要当医生。)
(2)不定式短语也可以当作副词,置于主句的句首或句尾,修饰整个主句,如下例:
To be a doctor, you need to have a heart of gold.
=If you want to be a doctor, you need to have a heart of gold.
(你若想当医生,就需有颗善心。)
不定式短语也可置于主句的句尾,此时该短语之前不可加逗号,即:
You need to have a heart of gold, to be a doctor.(×)
→You need to have a heart of gold to be a doctor.(○)
(3)不定式短语也可置于名词后视为形容词,修饰该名词,如下例:
I'm afraid I can't go to the movies with you this evening. I have quite a lot of work to do (形容词(修饰名词词组quite a lot of work)).
(恐怕我今晚无法跟你去看电影了。我有许多工作要做。)
3.第三类非限定动词:动名词
我也在本章前面曾提到动名词就是动词加了ing所变成的名词。
(1)动名词可在句中当主语,表示已知或已有的经验,如下例:
Hiking (主语)is my hobby.
=My hobby is hiking(补语).
(我的爱好就是健行。)
(2)动名词也可放在介词后做宾语,如下例:
I'm looking forward to (介词)seeing (宾语)you again soon.
(我期待快点与您再见面。)
Are you interested in (介词)swimming(宾语)?
(你对游泳感兴趣吗?)
(3)有些动词只能用动名词做宾语,如下例:
I enjoy to work with you.(×)
→I enjoy working with you.(○)
= I love / like to work with you.
= I love / likeworkingwith you.
(我喜欢与你共事。)
I anticipate to meet with you next week.(×)
→I anticipate meeting with you next week.(○)
= I expect / desire / wish / hope to meet with you next week.
= I'm looking forward to (介词)meeting with you next week.
(我期待下个星期跟你见面。)
这时大家可能会问我:“你怎么知道anticipate(期望)、enjoy(喜欢)等及物动词只能接动名词(包含名词、代词)做宾语;love和like可用动名词或不定式短语(包含名词、代词)做宾语;expect、desire、wish、hope却只能用不定式短语(或that从句)做宾语?你又怎么知道短语动词look forward to(期待)的to是介词?”其实,这与多看文章以及勤查词典是分不开的,我能区别并归纳这些动词的用法无非是经过长期大量“阅”与“读”及勤查词典、勤做笔记才学会的。所以对于学习英语,我一直坚信这两句真理:
第一,Live and learn.(活到老,学到老。)
第二,Rome wasn't built in a day.(罗马不是一天建成的。)
我也想借此机会送给各位读者一句我的感言:
Constant exposure to English leads you to the mastery of this language.
(不断接触英语会引领你精通这个语言。)
最后,我与大家一起总结一下我学习语法第一阶段的过程:
了解单句结构
↓
掌握连词的用法,延伸句子的长度及内容
↓
搞懂非限定动词的种类(动名词、不定式短语、分词),使句子产生多种变化
现在,我就来谈谈我学习语法的第二阶段:认识关系词的种类及其用法。
关系词分为下面三种,有连词的功能,都用以引导定语从句,多用来修饰主句中的名词。
1.关系代词
who(代替“人”)、whom(亦代替“人”)、which(代替事或物)
(1)使用who时,前面应有表示“人”的名词,who在所引导的定语从句中要做主语,如下例:
Here comes John, he is a good friend of mine.(×,两句无连词连接)→Here comes John(人), who is a good friend of mine.
(约翰来了,他是我的一位好友。)
上句中,关系代词who之前有表示“人”的名词John,who在所引导的定语从句中做主语,后面有动词is,因此句子结构正确。
(2)使用whom时,前面也应有表示“人”的名词,whom在所引导的定语从句中要做及物动词的宾语,或做介词的宾语,如下例:
David is a man I can trust him.(×,两句无连词连接)
David is a man I can trust whom.(×,whom前面没有表“人”的名词)
→David is a man whom (人)I can trust.
(戴维是个我可信赖的人。)
上句中,关系代词whom前面有表“人”的名词词组a man,whom在所引导的定语从句中做及物动词trust(信任)的宾语,因此句子结构正确。再看下例:
Mary is a pleasant girl, everyone in the office enjoys working with her.
(×,两句无连词连接)
Mary is a pleasant girl, everyone in the office enjoys working with whom.(×,whom前面应有表示“人”的名词)
→Mary is a pleasant girl(人), whom (介词)everyone in the office enjoys working with.
(玛丽是个有亲和力的女孩子,办公室的每个人都喜欢与她共事。)
上句中,关系代词whom前面有表示“人”的名词词组a pleasant girl,whom在所引导的定语从句中,做句尾介词with的宾语,因此句子结构正确。
(3)使用which时,前面应有表示“事”或“物”的名词,which在所引导的定语从句中要做主语、及物动词或介词的宾语,如下例:
This is a good novel, it was written by a famous writer in the last century.(×,两句无连词连接)
→This is a good novel, which was written by a famous writer in the last century.(○)
(这是一本不错的小说,是上个世纪某著名作家撰写的。)
上句中,关系代词which前面有表示“物”的名词词组a good novel(一本不错的小说),which在所引导的定语从句中做主语,其后有及物动词write的被动语态was written(被撰写),因此句子结构正确。
再看这个例子:
The dog is cute, I keep it as a pet.(×,两句无连词连接)
→The dog I keep it as a pet is cute.(×,应将it改成关系代词which,并移到The dog的后面)
→The dog which I keep as a pet is cute.(○)
(我养的宠物狗很可爱。)
上句中,句首The dog(这只狗)是全句的主语,is是不完全不及物动词,cute(可爱的)则为形容词,做主语补语。The dog后接关系代词which引导的定语从句,which前面有表“物”的名词词组The dog。 which在所引导的定语从句中做不完全及物动词keep(饲养)的宾语,as a pet(当作宠物)则为介词词组,做宾语which的补语,因此句子结构正确。
再看下列例子:
Most people say that Jane is lazy, it is, in my opinion, not true.
(×,两句无连词连接)
→Most people say that Jane is lazy, which is, in my opinion, not true.(○)
(大多数人都说简很懒惰,在我看来这并非事实。)
上句中,that Jane is lazy是名词从句,做主句中及物动词say的宾语,后面的关系代词which,代替that Jane is lazy(简很懒惰)这件事,which在所引导的定语从句中做主语,后面有动词is,因此句子结构正确。
此外,在which引导的定语从句中,插入的介词短语in my opinion(依我之见)被视为副词,用来修饰is not true,理论上应放在which的前面:
Most people say that Jane is lazy, in my opinion, which is not true.(×)
如此一来,which与被代替的that从句被in my opinion隔开,所以当in my opinion放在which前面时,句子是错误的。
注意:
(a)关系代词who、whom、which前如果没有逗号,都可以用that代替,whom或which做宾语时也可以省略that,所以上面的句子可以改写为:
David is a man whom I can trust. → whom做trust的宾语
=David is a man that I can trust. → that做trust的宾语
=David is a man I can trust.
(戴维是个我可以信赖的人。)
The dog which I keep as a pet is cute. → which做keep的宾语
=The dog that I keep as a pet is cute. → that做keep的宾语
=The dog I keep as a pet is cute.
(我养的宠物狗很可爱。)
Mary is a pleasant girl, that everyone in the office enjoys working with.(×,使用that做关系代词时,前面不得加逗号)
→Mary is a pleasant girl |that/whom| everyone in the office enjoys working with.
*此处that或whom均可省略。
(玛丽是个办公室中人人都喜欢与她共事的有亲和力的女孩子。)
=Mary is a pleasant girl, whom everyone in the office enjoys working with.
(玛丽是个和蔼可亲的女孩子,办公室的每个人都喜欢与她共事。)
相信各位读者应已注意到,定语从句前有逗号时,翻译成中文时会先翻译主句,再译定语从句,如上列例句的最后一句;定语从句前没有逗号时,我翻译成中文时会先把定语从句译成“……的”,再翻译被修饰的名词,如上列例句的倒数第二句。换言之,定语从句前没有逗号时,被修饰的名词通常不具有特殊性,为强调其特殊性,该名词后面的关系代词前面不加逗号,此时的定语从句称为“限定性定语从句”,以赋予该名词特殊性。反之,定语从句前如果有逗号时,被修饰的名词已具有特殊性,关系代词前一定加逗号,此时的定语从句称为“非限定性定语从句”,无须再赋予该名词以特殊性,如下例:
This is a novel, which was written by a famous writer in the last century.(这是一本小说,由上个世纪某位知名作家所撰写。) → (劣)
理由:a novel表“一本小说”,不具特殊性,故关系代词which前不应该加逗号:
This is a novel which was written by a famous writer in the last century.(这是一本由上个世纪某位知名作家撰写的小说。) →(佳)
=This is a great novel, which was written by a famous writer in the last century.(佳)
(这是一本很棒的小说,是上个世纪某位知名作家撰写的。)
*这句加入great,使novel具有了特殊性。
(b)在限定修饰的定语从句中,如果关系代词who或which做该定语从句的主语,通常也可以化简为分词词组,步骤如下:
第一步:
删除who或which;
第二步:
其后面的动词变成现在分词;
第三步:
如果动词为be动词(如am、is、are、was、were),一律变成现在分词being并可以省略。
请参看下列例子:
The man who is chatting with Mr. Johnson over there is my uncle.
who在画线的定语从句中做主语,所以可以把它删除,把后面的be动词is变成现在分词being后再予以省略,即:
The man chatting with Mr. Johnson over there is my uncle.
(在那边跟强森先生聊天的男子是我叔叔。)
请再看下列例子:
I'm currently staying at a hotel that overlooks the Danube.
that在画线的定语从句中做主语,等于which,所以可以将之删除,把后面的动词overlooks变成现在分词,即:
I'm currently staying at a hotel overlooking the Danube.
(我目前住在一家可以俯瞰多瑙河的酒店。)
请再看下列例子:
Those who are unwilling to work hard will never get anywhere.
who在画线的定语从句中做主语,所以可以将之删除,把后面的be动词are变成现在分词being之后再予以省略:
Those unwilling to work hard will never get anywhere.
(凡是不愿努力的人绝对不会有出息。)
2.关系代词所有格whose
whose由一般代词所有格(如his、her、its、their)转变而成,后面需接名词,“whose+名词”也引导定语从句,而“whose+名词”如同关系代词一样,其前要有表“人”或“物”的名词,并在所引导的定语从句中做主语、及物动词或介词的宾语,如下例:
Here comes John, his father is my English teacher.(×,两句无连词连接)
→Here comes John(人), whose father is my English teacher.
(约翰来了,他爸爸是我的英语老师。)
上句中,whose father之前有表示“人”的名词John,且whose father在所引导的定语从句中做主语,之后有动词is,故句子结构正确。
请再看下列例子:
Mary is my cousin, none can beat her beauty.(×,两句无连接词连接)
Mary is my cousin, none can beat whose beauty.(×,whose beauty前并无表“人”的名词)
→Mary is my cousin(人), whose beauty none can beat.
(玛丽是我表妹,她的美无人能及。)
上句中,whose beauty is前有表示“人”的名词词组my cousin(我的表妹/表姐/堂妹/堂姐),且whose beauty在所引导的定语从句中做及物动词beat(胜过)的宾语,故句子结构正确。
请再看下列例子:
I like this car, I don't like its color, though.(×,两句无连词连接)
注意:
本句句尾的though是副词,前面加逗号,表“然而”,等于however,也就是连接性副词(有连词but的意思,但仍属副词,而非连词)。
可用并列连词but将上句改正如下:
I like this car, but I don't like its color.
也可使用连接性副词将上句改写如下:
I like this car; however, I don't like its color.
=I like this car; I don't like its color, though.
(我喜欢这辆车,然而我却不喜欢它的颜色。)
或将though当作连词,表“虽然”,等于although,可将上句改写为:
Though / Although I like this car, I don't like its color.
(虽然我喜欢这辆车,我却不喜欢它的颜色。)
不过,以上的句子中有代名词所有格I don't like its color,可将its改成whose,形成下面的句子:
I like this car, whose color I don't like, though.
(我喜欢这辆车,然而我却不喜欢它的颜色。)
上列句子中,whose color前有表“物”的名词词组this car(这辆车),且whose color在所引导的定语从句中做否定及物动词don't like(不喜欢)的宾语,故句子结构正确。
3.复合关系代词
复合关系代词指what、whatever、whichever、whoever、whomever。这些词既含名词又含关系代词,也就是一词兼两种词性。换言之,复合关系代词前不可再有名词,以上列举的复合关系代词分别等于下列意思:
●what = the thing(s) that / which
所……的东西/话语/事情(做主语或宾语)
●whatever = anything that / which
所……的任何东西/话语/事情(做主语或宾语)
●whichever = any one that / which
所……同类东西的任何一项(做主语或宾语)
*注意:此处any与one是分开写的,同类东西的任何一项。
●whoever = anyone who
任何……的人(做主语)
*注意:此处any与one是连在一起,指“任何人”。
●whomever = anyone whom
任何……的人(做宾语)
下列为复合关系代词what的例句:
I believe what John says.
=I believethe words(名词)which John says (关系代词which引导的定语从句).
(我相信约翰所说的话。)
*上列句中,主句为I believe the words。
What happened this morning has nothing to do with me.
The thing (名词)that happened this morning has nothing to do with me(关系代词that引导的定语从句).
(今天早上发生的事全与我无关。)
*上列句中,the thing做本句主语,与has nothing to do with me形成主句。
下列为复合关系代词whatever的例句:
I believe whatever John says.
=I believe any words(名词) which John says .(关系代词which引导的定语从句)
(我相信约翰所说的任何话。)
*上列句中,主句为I believe any words。
Whatever happened this morning has nothing to do with me.
= Anything (名词)that happened this morning (关系代词that引导的定语从句)has nothing to do with me.
(今天早上发生的任何事都与我无关。)
*上列句中,anything为本句主语,与has nothing to do with me构成主句。
下列为复合关系代词whichever的例句:
There are five apples here. You may take whichever you like.
= There are five apples here. You may take |any apple/any one| which you like.
(这里有五个苹果。你爱吃哪一个随你。)
下列为复合关系代词whoever的例句:
Whoever makes such a simple mistake should be punished.
= Anyone who makes such a simple mistake should be punished.
(任何犯下这样简单错误的人都应受到处罚。)
*上列句中,关系代词who做定语从句的主语。
下列为复合关系代词whomever的例句:
I don't trust whomever you like.
=I don't trust anyone whom you like.
(你喜欢的人我一个都不信任。)
*上列句中,关系代词whom做定语从句中及物动词like的宾语。
4.关系副词
关系副词都是由“介词+关系代词which”变化而成,引导定语从句,有下列三个:
(1)where置于表地点的名词之后,请看下例:
I used to work inBeijing (地点名词), which (关系代词)I met my wife-to-be.
(×,在which所引导的定语从句中,已有主语I及宾语my wife-to-be,此时which之前应置介词in,以which做其宾语)
→I used to work inBeijing (地点名词), in which I met my wife-to-be.(○)
=I used to work in Beijing (地点名词), where (关系副词)I met my wife-to-be.
(我曾在北京工作,在那儿我遇见了我日后的太太。)
We reachedthe hilltop (地点名词词组)which there was a small fancy hotel.
(×,which之后的there is a small fancy hotel句子结构完整,故which既不能做主语又不能做宾语,此时which前面应置介词on,以which做其宾语。)
→We reached the hilltop on which there was a small fancy hotel.(○)
=We reached the hilltop where there was a small fancy hotel.
(我们登上了那座有一家精致小旅馆的山顶。)
(2)when置于表“时间”的名词之后,请看下例:
World War I broke out in 1914 (时间名词), which my grandfather was born.
(×,在which引导的定语从句中,已有主语my grandfather,动词was,及形容词born做主语补语,故which既不能做主语也不能做宾语,此时which前应置介词in,以which做其宾语。)
→World War I broke out in1914 (时间名词), in which my grandfather was born.
=World War I broke out in 1914 (时间名词), when my grandfather was born.
(第一次世界大战于1914年爆发,那一年我爷爷出生了。)
I'll never forget the day which I first met you.
(×,在which引导的形容词从句中已有主语I及宾语you,故which前应放介词on,以which做其宾语)
→I'll never forget the day (时间名词词组)on which I met you.(○)
=I'll never forget the day (时间名词词组)when I met you.
(我永远忘不了第一次跟你见面的那一天。)
(3)why置于名词the reason(理由)之后,请看下例:
Tell me the reason which you cried this morning.
(×,在which引导的定语从句中已有主语you,而cried(哭)是不及物动词,所以which不能做其宾语,故之前应置介词for表“为了”,使which做其宾语)
→Tell me the reason forwhich (名词词组)you cried this morning.
=Tell me the reason (名词词组)why you cried this morning.
(告诉我你今天早上为何而哭。)
注意:
(a)以上三个关系副词只有why前不加逗号,即the reason后why引导的定语从句一定是限定性修饰。而where及when前可以加逗号,形成非限定性修饰;也可不加逗号,形成限定性修饰。
(b)where引导的定语从句不论是限定性或非限定性修饰,where都不能省略:
This isthe small town I was born.(×,两句无连词连接)
→This is the small town where (地方名词词组)I was born.(○)
(这就是我出生的小镇。)
I live in a small town, the air there is fresh.(×,两句无连词连接)→I live in a small town, where the air is fresh.(○)
(我住在某小镇,那儿的空气很清新。)
(c)when引导的定语从句如果是限定性修饰,when可省略;但如果是非限定性修饰,when则不可省略:
I'll never forget the day when I first met you.(○)
=I'll never forget the day I first met you.
(我永远忘不了我第一次跟你见面的那一天。)
War broke out in 1976, my little brother was born.
(×,两句无连词连接)
→War broke out in 1976, when my little brother was born.(○)
(1976年爆发战争,我小弟就是在那一年出生的。)
(d)the reason可与why并用,也可将the reason保留,省略why,反之亦然:
I know the reason why John resigned from his job.
=I know the reason John resigned from his job.
=I know why John resigned from his job.
(我知道约翰辞职的原因。)
(e)其实也有人把how视为关系副词,但不能与the way(方式)同时使用:
I admire the way how Peter dealt with that problem.(×)
→I admire the way in which Peter dealt with that problem.(可)
= I admire the way Peter dealt with that problem.(佳,简洁)
= I admire how Peter dealt with that problem.(佳,简洁)
(我欣赏彼得处理那个问题的方式。)
以上是我学习语法的第二阶段:认识关系词及其用法。接下来我就要继续向大家介绍我学习语法的第三阶段:时态。
很多人在学时态时都会被语法书中的很多规则弄得晕头转向,越是背这些规则就越糊涂,其实正是这些复杂的规则引起了英语学习思路混乱。因此我学英语时态时从不记这些规则,中文用什么时态,英语也是如此。
1.表示现在的事实或现象,动词一律用“现在时”。
中文:我爱你。
英语:I love you.
中文:他很诚实。
英语:He is honest.
中文:汤姆喜欢在周末慢跑。
英语:Tom enjoys jogging on weekends.
中文:沿着河岸两边有好多树。
英语:There are many trees down the river banks.
2.表过去的事实或现象,动词一律用“过去时”,这时通常会与表过去的时间副词或时间副词词组并用。
中文:约翰在世时很爱他妻子。
英语:When John was alive, he lovedhis wife very much.
中文:保罗年轻时很老实。
英语:Paul was honest when he was young.
中文:汤姆上个周末在公园慢跑。
英语:Tom went jogging in the park last weekend.
中文:这条河以前有许多鱼。
英语:There used to be (= were once) many fish in the river.
3.中文有“正在”或“在”时,英语就用“进行时”,即“be+现在分词”。
现在进行时
中文:别烦我!我现在在念书。
英语:Don't bother me! I'm studying now.
过去进行时
中文:我昨天打电话给他的时候,他正在看电视。
英语:When I called him yesterday, he was watching TV.
将来进行时
中文:你明天早上来看我的时候,我将在开会。
英语:When you visit me tomorrow, I will be having a meeting.
4.表“已经”时,动词就使用“现在完成时”,“have / has+过去分词”。
中文:我已经把工作做完了。
英语:I have finished the work.
中文:山姆叔叔已经过世了。
英语:Uncle Sam has passed away.
注意:
(a)以上使用现在完成时的动词或短语动词,属于瞬间动词或瞬间短语动词,此类动词如finish(完成)或短语动词如pass away(过世,die的委婉用语),表示的动作都在瞬间完成,因此不可与表持续性的时间副词短语“for+一段时间”并用,请看下例:
I have finishedthe work for two hours.(×)
我不断完成工作,连续完成两小时。→不合逻辑
Uncle Sam has passed away for twenty years.(×)
山姆叔叔每天都过世一次,连续过世二十年了。→不合逻辑
此时,我们应将上列两句改成过去时:
→I finished the work two hours ago.(○)
(我两小时前把工作做完了。)
→Uncle Sam passed away twenty years ago.(○)
(山姆叔叔二十年前就过世了。)
当然,我们也可以改用下列的句子结构:
It is two hours since I finished the work.
=It has been two hours since I finished the work.
=Two hours have passed since I finished the work.
It is twenty years since Uncle Sam passed away.
=It has been twenty years since Uncle Sam passed away.
=Twenty years have passed sinceUncle Sam passed away.
按理论,我们应将上列两个英语例句分别翻译成:
自我做完工作后,已经过了两个小时了。
自山姆叔叔过世后,已经又过了二十年了。
实际应翻译成:
我完工已经两小时了。
山姆叔叔过世已二十年了。
有了这样的概念后,我们马上知道下列的英语句子都是错误的:
John has returned to Hong Kong for five months.(×)
约翰每天都回到香港去,连续回去五个月了。→不合逻辑
Peter has married Jane for thirty years.(×)
彼得与简每天都结婚,连续结婚三十年了。→不合逻辑
I have lent David 500 dollars for two weeks, but he hasn't paid me back yet.(×)
我借给戴维五百元连续借了两个礼拜,不过他尚未还我钱。→第一个主句不合逻辑
但如果将上列各句表持续性的时间副词短语删除,就是正确的句子:
John has returned to Hong Kong.
(约翰已回到香港。)
Peter has married Jane.
(彼得与简已经完婚。)
I have lent David 500 dollars, but he hasn't paid me back yet.
(我已把五百元借给戴维,不过他尚未把钱还给我。)
(b)如果动词所表示的动作每天都在持续发生,则可以用动词的现在完成时与“for+一段时间”并用,请参看下例:
I have learned English for five years.
(我英语已学了五年。)
*我每天都学英语,连续学了五年。→合逻辑
Paul has lived in the countryside for ten years.
(保罗在乡下已住了十年。)
*他每天都住在乡下,连续住了十年。→合逻辑
Mr. Smith has worked for that company for more than fifteen years.
(史密斯先生为那家公司效命超过十五年了。)
*他每个工作日都在效命,长达十五年以上。→合逻辑
(c)上列所提到的瞬间动词如pass away(= die)、marry(娶;嫁;与……结婚)如果改为形容词dead(死的)、married(已婚的),则可以使用现在完成时,与表持续的时间副词词组并用,请参看下例:
Uncle Sam has been dead for twenty years.
(山姆叔叔过世已二十年了。)
*他每天处在死亡的状态里长达二十年。→合逻辑
Peter and Jane have been married for thirty years.(彼得和简结婚已三十年。)
*他俩每天处在已婚的状态中达三十年。→合逻辑
5.表“到现在一直都在从事某事,未来也会从事下去”时,动词就使用“现在完成进行时”,即为“have / has been+现在分词”,请参看下例:
中文:五年多来我一直都在学英语(未来也会继续学下去)。
英语:I have been learning English (for) more than five years.
中文:保罗一直都住在乡下达十年之久(未来也会继续住下去)。
英语:Paul has been living in the countryside for ten years.
6.“现在完成时”可单独使用,表“已经”做完某事,但与表过去的时间副词并用时,应立刻改成“过去时”,请参看下例:
I have finished my work. In fact, I finished it at 5 PM yesterday(表过去的时间副词词组).
(我已经把工作做完了。事实上,我是在昨天下午五点做完的。)
Uncle Sam has passed away. He passed away twenty years ago(表过去的时间副词词组).
(山姆叔叔已经过世了。他二十年前就与世长辞了。)
7.过去完成时的结构为“had+过去分词”,表“已经先行……”,通常要与“过去时”搭配,即先发生的动作用过去完成时,后发生的动作用过去时。过去完成时通常无法单独存在,需靠过去时来辅助,请参看下例:
Tom had left.(×,语意不明)
→Theysaid (过去时)(that) Tom had left (过去完成时).
(据说汤姆已经离开了。)
When Iarrived (过去时)at the station, the trainhad departed.(过去完成时)
(我到达车站时,火车已经开走了。)
Had you finished (过去完成时)your homework before youstarted(过去时)playing with your toys, Tommy?
(汤米,你在玩玩具之前已经先把功课做完了吗?)
8.过去完成进行时的结构为“had been+现在分词”,表“一直进行某动作”直到后来另一动作发生才停止或仍在继续进行。过去完成进行时通常无法单独存在,需靠过去时陪衬,请参看下例:
I had been dating Mary (过去完成进行时)for ten years before we got married.(过去时)
(我与玛丽交往了十年之久然后两人才结婚。)
Colonel Leetold (过去时)me that hehad been serving (过去进行时)in the army for thirty years.
(李上校告诉我他投身军旅已有三十年了。→且还会继续服役下去)
9.中文的条件句不可能有“将”字,只有主句才会有“将”字。如下例:
如果/一旦/当我将有空时,我将打电话给你。
(×,会讲中文的人不会讲出这样的句子)
上句有两个“将”,诸位念起来会不会觉得怪怪的?这不禁让我想到中国人在过农历新年时都会请人表演舞龙舞狮来讨个吉利,传统乐队会在旁边敲锣打鼓发出这样的声音:锵锵锵!锵锵锵!锵锵锵锵锵锵锵!
同理,英国人或美国人也不会在条件句及主句都加上助动词will:
If I will have time, I will call you.(×)
=Once I will be free, I willgive you a call.(×)
=As soon as I will be available, I will give you a ring.(×)
=When I will be off duty, I will give you a buzz.(×)
上列条件句中的will都应删除,且改用现在时,保留主句中的will即可,请看下例:
If I have time, I will call you.
=Once I am free, I will give you a call.
=As soon as I am available, I will give you a ring.
=When I am off duty, I will give you a buzz.
(如果/一旦/当我有空时,我将会打电话给你。)
这就证明中文句子与英语句子在时态及结构方面,有许多地方是相同的,我们不需要去背那么多的语法规则。后来,我当英语老师时,很注意我的言辞表达,一定要简单清楚,尽量少用语法术语,让学生一听就能明白我想表达的重点,不过如果有同学不小心犯错误,说出以下句子:
When I will have money, I will buy a fancy car for my dad.(×)
我就会在讲台上唱出“锵锵锵!锵锵锵!锵锵锵锵锵锵锵”的声音。
这位同学知道自己的错误后,马上把上句修正为:
When I have money, I will buy my dad a fancy car.
=When I am rich, I will buy a fancy car for my dad.
我学语法不是从八大词类下手,而是注重句子结构,提升造句的能力,所以我要把我学语法的过程再说一遍:
一、了解单句结构
了解可做主语的词类、短语、从句;并以“我______他”“他被我_______”判断五大动词,从而了解五大基本句型。
二、了解连词的用法
了解对等连词及引导从句的连词,以延伸句子的长度,并充实句子的内容。
三、了解非限定动词(又称动状词)的用法
英语将非限定动词称为verbals,包含动名词、不定式短语、现在分词、过去分词。熟悉这些非限定动词的用法后,可以让单调的句子变得更生动。
四、时态
从简单现在时、过去时、将来时学起,进而了解进行时、完成时、完成进行时的用法。
当然,我还想继续和大家分享我学英语语法的其他心得,如虚拟语气,It is引导的强调句,连词when、while、though引导的从句变成分词短语……不过如果真这样写下去会没完没了,最后就形成另一本语法书了。其实只要懂得上面列出的四个部分,我们就已具备分析句子结构及造句的能力了,至于语法的其他细节(如名词、形容词、副词、冠词的种类、比较级的用法)都会通过大量“阅”与“读”及勤查字典而无师自通!相信我,我就是这样学语法的。 赖世雄的英语学习法