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　　7.3.2 Pedagogical Implications

　　The findings of this study suggest the following pedagogical implications.

　　Text repetition in listening comprehension is clearly helpful in facilitating learners' listening comprehension, and it is especially helpful for learners with low listening proficiency. In an authentic communicative setting, however, repetition of oral input may only happen when requested by the listener. Therefore, in order for learners to develop the competence needed for listening in a real communicative context, teachers need to reduce repetition over time. In other words, repetition of listening texts may suit the needs of beginners, but the final goal of listening teaching is to enable learners to be able to comprehend input in authentic listening settings. It is suggested therefore that for learners with low listening proficiency, EFL teachers should start with providing opportunities for repeated listening and then gradually move toward the final state of one-time listening. With regard to the difficulty level of the listening texts, instruction should aim only to provide input that is slightly above the learners'current level of competence. As argued by Rost (2011, p.152), “By receiving input that is progressively more complex, the learner naturally acquires listening ability”. Therefore, EFL teachers should choose reasonably challenging listening materials to suit low proficiency listeners, and as their competence develops, the listening texts can gradually increase in linguistic difficulty.

　　Listening texts not only serve learners as a tool for practicing listening but also as a source of incidental vocabulary acquisition. Therefore, when designing listening texts for the purpose of incidental vocabulary learning, EFL teachers should keep the following issues in mind.

　　(a) New words to be learned incidentally in the listening texts should be limited to a very small percentage of the total words in the text. As noted by Read (2004, p.150), “the vocabulary learning goals for minimum levels of both listening and reading comprehension need to be set somewhat higher than 95 percent coverage”. Hu & Nation (2000) also argued that learners need to know at least 98% of the words in order to read independently. “However, there is simply not enough evidence to confidently establish a coverage requirement for listening at the moment” (Schmitt, 2008, p.331). The primary aim should be to ensure that learners are able to comprehend the text. Only when the percentage of new words is low can learners possibly attend to unknown words and guess their meanings effectively.

　　(b) EFL teachers should maximize meaning—focused exposure as well as providing explicit vocabulary instruction. Repetition of the target words is an important condition for incidental vocabulary acquisition to occur. Considering that what is retained by the listener is the encoded information in memory (Danks & End, 1987), words which leave more traces in memory (such as frequently repeated words) may be more easily understood than those leaving fewer traces in memory during listening comprehension. As described previously, the maximum exposures to the target words in this study were only six, which probably could only leave very slight traces of word form in memory and was not sufficient for form-meaning mapping by the learners. According to Webb (2007: 64), when “learners meet unknown words ten times in context, sizable learning gains may occur”. Schmitt (2008) suggested that 8-10 reading exposures may give learners a reasonable chance of acquiring an initial receptive knowledge of words. Therefore, it is advised that each target word should occur several times in different contexts in the listening tasks. As argued by Huckin & Coady (1999, p.185) “there are so many variables involved in learning a word that it is impossible to determine any one threshold for number of exposures. Much depends on such factors as the word's salience in a given text, its recognizability as a cognate, its morphology, the learner's interest, and the availability and richness of context clues”.

　　(c) The linguistic properties of the listening texts:

　　The content of texts should be familiar to the learners. Nassaji (2003) found that the most frequently used knowledge source for lexical inferencing in reading comprehension is world knowledge and this finding suggests that clues residing in background knowledge will assist comprehension. EFL teachers should use or devise listening texts that have content related to the learners'background knowledge.

　　The sentences in which the targets words are embedded should provide clues for learners to infer the meanings. Previous studies (e. g., Bengeleil & Paribakht, 2004) revealed that when using contextual clues, learners tend to use local co-text clues (words whose meanings could be inferred by using the immediate sentence context) to infer word meaning. They found that learners first study the sentence containing the target word to infer the meaning and only later resort to the co-text beyond the target word sentence if necessary.

　　Words which contribute to the understanding of the topic of texts in a listening task are more likely to be understood than words describing factual details in the same listening task. Therefore, the target words should occur in the sentences relating the topic of the text.

　　One of the most effective ways of improving incidental learning is by reinforcing it afterwards with intentional learning tasks. Therefore, follow-up work is necessary to promote awareness of the unfamiliar lexical items in order to deepen and extend the learners' partial knowledge. Some after-listening vocabulary work (e. g., pronunciation help, reconstruction activities, etc. ) should be devised to consolidate and maintain the partial and vague vocabulary knowledge that learners have gained from listening tasks.

　　EFL teachers should recognize that, even though it may be time-consuming to prepare listening texts and follow-up tasks, they may benefit both listening comprehension and vocabulary acquisition.

　　Metacognitive awareness training needs to be conducted over a period of time, and learners also need time to gradually act on the metacognitive strategies they have received training in. The metacognitive listening strategy training in the study was conducted for only five minutes, and it was clearly too short for the learners to automatize strategy use. Learners also need to apply the taught strategies beyond the classroom listening contexts. Long-term training can provide learners with more opportunities to apply the learned strategies in real life listening activities. L2 research on the effect of training on inferencing meaning in listening comprehension is extremely scarce. The use of the lexical inferencing strategy has been mostly examined in reading comprehension research but has been shown to be not always effective. For instance, Hamada (2009) examined 5 Japanese college-level ESL learners' meaning inferencing behaviors over a 4-week period, and found the learners did not show a considerable change. Although some studies (e. g., Fraser, 1999) proved L2 lexical inferencing strategy training to be helpful in reading comprehension, the generalizability of their findings to the listening is yet unclear. Therefore, in order to draw pedagogically useful conclusions, more research regarding the effect of L2 word-meaning inference training is needed. Moreover, inferencing in listening may be problematic and EFL teachers should be cautious when encouraging less proficient students to infer word meaning in listening comprehension. Less proficient listeners may experience difficulty in using appropriate knowledge sources to infer word meaning, and once an incorrect inference is made, it may harm text understanding. Field (2008) recommended that listeners should check their interpretations against incoming information. So EFL teachers can instruct students to listen to texts embedded with unknown words by asking them to identify unknown words, report what they think the meanings of the words are and how they arrive at the meanings. Then the teacher can ask the students to listen again and encourage them to check if their inference matches the existing textual information (Lee & Cai, 2010). 元认知策略研究：二语听力理解与附带词汇习得（英文版）